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To perform active surveys, you can use any modern Wi-Fi adapter. However, active surveys give you only a small part of the WLAN picture. To get comprehensive information, passive surveys are mandatory.
To perform predictive surveys, no Wi-Fi adapter is required. In predictive surveys, commonly referred to as 'RF planning', Wi-Fi characteristics are predicted for the virtual environment model created by the user.
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XP or higher
2.4 GHz/5 GHz
Vista or higher
2.4 GHz/5 GHz
XP or higher
2.4 GHz only
XP or higher
2.4 GHz/5 GHz
Windows 7 or higher
2.4 GHz/5 GHz
Windows 7 or higher
2.4 GHz only
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2.4 GHz only
XP or higher
2.4 GHz only
Windows 7 or higher
2.4 GHz only
XP or higher
2.4 GHz only
Windows 7 or higher
2.4 GHz/5 GHz
XP or higher
2.4 GHz/5 GHz
XP or higher
2.4 GHz/5 GHz
XP or higher
- 42.10.1. Triggers on Data Changes
- 42.10.2. Triggers on Events
PL/pgSQL can be used to define trigger functions on data changes or database events. A trigger function is created with the CREATE FUNCTION command, declaring it as a function with no arguments and a return type of trigger (for data change triggers) or event_trigger (for database event triggers). Special local variables named TG_ are automatically defined to describe the condition that triggered the call.something
A data change trigger is declared as a function with no arguments and a return type of trigger. Note that the function must be declared with no arguments even if it expects to receive some arguments specified in CREATE TRIGGER — such arguments are passed via TG_ARGV, as described below.
When a PL/pgSQL function is called as a trigger, several special variables are created automatically in the top-level block. They are:
NEWData type RECORD; variable holding the new database row for INSERT/UPDATE operations in row-level triggers. This variable is null in statement-level triggers and for DELETE operations.
OLDData type RECORD; variable holding the old database row for UPDATE/DELETE operations in row-level triggers. This variable is null in statement-level triggers and for INSERT operations.
TG_NAMEData type name; variable that contains the name of the trigger actually fired.
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TG_WHENData type text; a string of BEFORE, AFTER, or INSTEAD OF, depending on the trigger's definition.
TG_LEVELData type text; a string of either ROW or STATEMENT depending on the trigger's definition.
TG_OPData type text; a string of INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, or TRUNCATE telling for which operation the trigger was fired.
TG_RELIDData type oid; the object ID of the table that caused the trigger invocation.
TG_RELNAMEData type name; the name of the table that caused the trigger invocation. This is now deprecated, and could disappear in a future release. Use TG_TABLE_NAME instead.
TG_TABLE_NAMEData type name; the name of the table that caused the trigger invocation.
TG_TABLE_SCHEMAData type name; the name of the schema of the table that caused the trigger invocation.
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TG_NARGSData type integer; the number of arguments given to the trigger function in the CREATE TRIGGER statement.
TG_ARGV[]Data type array of text; the arguments from the CREATE TRIGGER statement. The index counts from 0. Invalid indexes (less than 0 or greater than or equal to tg_nargs) result in a null value.
A trigger function must return either NULL or a record/row value having exactly the structure of the table the trigger was fired for.
Row-level triggers fired BEFORE can return null to signal the trigger manager to skip the rest of the operation for this row (i.e., subsequent triggers are not fired, and the INSERT/UPDATE/DELETE does not occur for this row). If a nonnull value is returned then the operation proceeds with that row value. Returning a row value different from the original value of NEW alters the row that will be inserted or updated. Thus, if the trigger function wants the triggering action to succeed normally without altering the row value, NEW (or a value equal thereto) has to be returned. To alter the row to be stored, it is possible to replace single values directly in NEW and return the modified NEW, or to build a complete new record/row to return. In the case of a before-trigger on DELETE, the returned value has no direct effect, but it has to be nonnull to allow the trigger action to proceed. Note that NEW is null in DELETE triggers, so returning that is usually not sensible. The usual idiom in DELETE triggers is to return OLD.
INSTEAD OF triggers (which are always row-level triggers, and may only be used on views) can return null to signal that they did not perform any updates, and that the rest of the operation for this row should be skipped (i.e., subsequent triggers are not fired, and the row is not counted in the rows-affected status for the surrounding INSERT/UPDATE/DELETE). Otherwise a nonnull value should be returned, to signal that the trigger performed the requested operation. For INSERT and UPDATE operations, the return value should be NEW, which the trigger function may modify to support INSERT RETURNING and UPDATE RETURNING (this will also affect the row value passed to any subsequent triggers, or passed to a special EXCLUDED alias reference within an INSERT statement with an ON CONFLICT DO UPDATE clause). For DELETE operations, the return value should be OLD.
The return value of a row-level trigger fired AFTER or a statement-level trigger fired BEFORE or AFTER is always ignored; it might as well be null. However, any of these types of triggers might still abort the entire operation by raising an error.
Example 42.3 shows an example of a trigger function in PL/pgSQL.
Example 42.3. A PL/pgSQL Trigger Function
This example trigger ensures that any time a row is inserted or updated in the table, the current user name and time are stamped into the row. And it checks that an employee's name is given and that the salary is a positive value.
Another way to log changes to a table involves creating a new table that holds a row for each insert, update, or delete that occurs. This approach can be thought of as auditing changes to a table. Example 42.4 shows an example of an audit trigger function in PL/pgSQL.
Example 42.4. A PL/pgSQL Trigger Function for Auditing
This example trigger ensures that any insert, update or delete of a row in the emp table is recorded (i.e., audited) in the emp_audit table. The current time and user name are stamped into the row, together with the type of operation performed on it.
A variation of the previous example uses a view joining the main table to the audit table, to show when each entry was last modified. This approach still records the full audit trail of changes to the table, but also presents a simplified view of the audit trail, showing just the last modified timestamp derived from the audit trail for each entry. Example 42.5 shows an example of an audit trigger on a view in PL/pgSQL.
Example 42.5. A PL/pgSQL View Trigger Function for Auditing
This example uses a trigger on the view to make it updatable, and ensure that any insert, update or delete of a row in the view is recorded (i.e., audited) in the emp_audit table. The current time and user name are recorded, together with the type of operation performed, and the view displays the last modified time of each row.
One use of triggers is to maintain a summary table of another table. The resulting summary can be used in place of the original table for certain queries — often with vastly reduced run times. This technique is commonly used in Data Warehousing, where the tables of measured or observed data (called fact tables) might be extremely large. Example 42.6 shows an example of a trigger function in PL/pgSQL that maintains a summary table for a fact table in a data warehouse.
Example 42.6. A PL/pgSQL Trigger Function for Maintaining a Summary Table
The schema detailed here is partly based on the Grocery Store example from The Data Warehouse Toolkit by Ralph Kimball.
AFTER triggers can also make use of transition tables to inspect the entire set of rows changed by the triggering statement. The CREATE TRIGGER command assigns names to one or both transition tables, and then the function can refer to those names as though they were read-only temporary tables. Example 42.7 shows an example.
Example 42.7. Auditing with Transition Tables
This example produces the same results as Example 42.4, but instead of using a trigger that fires for every row, it uses a trigger that fires once per statement, after collecting the relevant information in a transition table. This can be significantly faster than the row-trigger approach when the invoking statement has modified many rows. Notice that we must make a separate trigger declaration for each kind of event, since the REFERENCING clauses must be different for each case. But this does not stop us from using a single trigger function if we choose. (In practice, it might be better to use three separate functions and avoid the run-time tests on TG_OP.)
PL/pgSQL can be used to define event triggers. PostgreSQL requires that a function that is to be called as an event trigger must be declared as a function with no arguments and a return type of event_trigger.
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When a PL/pgSQL function is called as an event trigger, several special variables are created automatically in the top-level block. They are:
TG_EVENTData type text; a string representing the event the trigger is fired for.
TG_TAGTg Pro 2 18 Noiembrie
Data type text; variable that contains the command tag for which the trigger is fired.
Example 42.8 shows an example of an event trigger function in PL/pgSQL.
Example 42.8. A PL/pgSQL Event Trigger Function
This example trigger simply raises a NOTICE message each time a supported command is executed.